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Many of the accounts of Dedekind cuts that I have seen, including the
original one, wave their hands in the most blatant way, especially
with regard to multiplication. Nevertheless, several deep and powerful
ideas have been incorporated into this theory in the course of 150
years. This posting is a summary of them, and was written in the hope
that somebody might tell me who first discovered each of
them. However, whilst I am always glad to receive mathematical,
historical and philosophical comments from my colleagues, I would
respectfully ask, on this occasion in particular, that they first
check them against the actual papers that they cite, and against the
bibliography of my paper with Andrej Bauer:

        The Dedekind Reals in Abstract Stone Duality
        www.PaulTaylor.EU/ASD/dedras

This paper originally appeared in the proceedings of Computability and
Complexity in Analysis, held in Kyoto in August 2005. It has now been
accepted for a journal, and we intend to finalise it very soon.

Abstract Stone Duality is a new axiomatisation of recursive general
topology without set theory. In it, the Dedekind reals satisfy the
Heine--Borel property ("finite open subcover" compactness of [0,1]),
whereas this fails in traditional recursive analysis based on set
theory. How ASD achieves this is, of course, explained in the paper,
but I also gave a summary in my posting to the categories mailing list
on 18 August 2007.

However, this posting is about different issues, and will be expressed
in traditional (set-theoretic) language. Where I have "d in D" here,
in ASD it is written "delta d".

Please see  www.PaulTaylor.EU/ASD/dedras/classical.html  for a version
of this posting that includes links and mathematical symbols.  It
was sent to sci.math.research several weeks ago, generating some
discussion of the definition of reciprocals of intervals, but not of
most of the main points of history about which I wanted to ask.

It did, however, lead me to the original papers about the Archimedean
principle and the classical result that this follows from Dedekind
completeness.  I can send references to anyone who is interested in
this point, or you can search for the names Stolz, Veronese, Killing,
Bettazzi, Vivanti and Holder.   The historical expert on this is
Philip Ehrlich at the University of Ohio.


DEFINITION OF A DEDEKIND CUT

Dedekind originally defined a cut (D,U) as a partition of the
rationals. This means that there are two representations of each
rational number q as a cut, namely ({d | d <= q}, {u | u > q}) and
({d | d < q}, {u | u >= q}). This is messy, even in the classical
situation, so our definition omits q in this case. Who first did this?

The letters D and U stand for "down" and "up", for which they are
conveniently positioned in the alphabet. For the moment, all lower
case variables range over the rationals.

We want to say, in a mathematically sensitive way, that D and U have
no endpoints:
        d in D   <=>   Some e. (d < e)  &  e in D
and    u in U   <=>   Some t. (t < u)  &  t in U.

This property is called roundedness, and I learned it in the context
of continuous lattices. Where did it come from originally?

D and U also need to be bounded and disjoint:
        Some d. d in D,        Some u. u in U
and    d in D  &  u in U  =>  d < u,
although there are other ways of expressing disjointness.

The final condition is the most interesting one. We want to say that D
and U account for the whole line, apart from at most one point, or
"almost touch". There is an order-theoretic way to say this,
        d < u    =>   d in D  or  u in U,
and an arithmetical one,
        eps > 0  =>   Some d u. d in D  &  u in U  &  u-d < eps.
These properties are called locatedness. Who formulated them,
particularly the first one? Was is Brouwer, perhaps?

I shall return to the difference between these two notions of
locatedness, but first examine some useful subsystems.




ONE-SIDED REALS

Although Andrej and I only set out to construct the real line itself,
we found that both the construction and the applications forced us to
consider other structures first.

Consider D on its own, satisfying just the roundedness condition.
Classically, D = {d | d < a} where a = sup D  in  R + {-oo, +oo}.
he collection of all such D or a forms a continuous lattice,
which naturally carries the Scott topology.

As the set D grows, so does the extended real number a. Customarily,
we use a temporal metaphor for the reals, and a vertical one for
lattices, so I call D an ascending real, although it is called
(I think) lower elsewhere. Similarly, U is a descending or upper real.

There is a bijection between rounded lower subsets D of the rationals
and of the reals, and this respects the other properties, so I shall
switch between the two without comment. This bijection is essentially
the idempotence of the cut construction in Dedekind's paper.

An (extended) real-valued function f is called lower semicontinuous if
f^-1 (a,+oo] is open for all a. I have checked the handedness of this
definition with two textbooks and two websites, but who first used it?

A function is lower semicontinuous iff it is continuous in the generic
sense as a function to the ascending reals with the Scott topology.



CONSTRUCTIVE LEAST UPPER BOUND

Constructively and computationally, it is not always possible to form
sup D.

The supremum, if it is a real number a, is represented by a Dedekind
cut ({d | d < a}, {u | u > a}). But the lower half of this must be the
original D.   So, I'm saying that an ascending real D need not have a
descending partner U for which (D,U) is a cut.

If, as is essentially the case in ASD, D and U are recursively
enumerable
sets of rationals, an RE set D need not have an RE complement U.

Let S be any set of real numbers, and suppose that a = sup S exists as
a real number. Then, as R is totally ordered, for any x < y, either x<a
or a<y, and in the latter case, s<y for all s in S.

So, if sup S exists then, for any x<y, either x<s for some s in S
or s<y for all s in S.  This is known as the constructive least upper
bound principle.

Douglas Bridges told me that Errett Bishop knew it, and Bas Spitters
says that similar ideas occur in Brouwer's work, but cannot pinpoint
the statement. Did Brouwer formulate it? If not, who did?

A subset S of a metric space X is called located if the distance
d(x,S) = inf {d(x,y) | y in S} exists, for all points x in X. Who
formulated this idea? Classically, using infima of distances like this
goes back to Hausdorff.

Is ASD, using the same logical principle, we find that the supremum of
any compact subspace of ? exists, but it is a descending real
number. Similarly, the supremum of an overt subspace is an ascending
real number. If the subspace is compact, overt and nonempty, it has a
maximum.



INTERVALS

If D and U are rounded and disjoint, R\D\U is classically a closed
interval, [d,u], where d = supD and u = infU; these are +/- oo
unless D and U are bounded. The systematic study of intervals and
their arithmetic was begun by Ramon Moore.

I claim that intervals should be represented by the sets D and U, and
not by the numbers d and u or the closed subset [d,u].

At any stage in the computation of a real number, we have so far
demonstrated that some numbers are lower bounds, and some are upper
ones. These (and their lower and upper closures) form sets D and U.

For example, Archimedes measured the area of a circle by inscribing
and circumscribing polygons, and Riemann integration is defined in the
same way for general continuous functions.

When dealing with sets of lower and upper bounds like this, it is
usually automatic that D and U be rounded and disjoint. Sometimes
boundedness may be in doubt, but usually the most difficult part is to
demonstrate locatedness. Intervals (possibly infinite ones) separate
the easy parts of a proof or computation from the difficult ones.

In the case of Riemann integration of a continuous function on a
closed interval, locatedness follows from uniform continuity. It is
then much easier to demostrate the linearity properties of the
integral using Dedekind cuts that with limits of Cauchy sequences.

Similarly, it is possible to define the derivative of any continuous
function, as an interval. This is bounded iff the function is
Lipschitz and located iff it is differentiable in the standard sense.




INTERVAL ARITHMETIC

Ramon Moore defined the arithmetic operations on intervals as follows:

         [d,u] + [e,t]  =  [d+e, u+t]
               - [d,u]  =  [-u,   -d]
         [d,u] x [e,t]  =  [min (d e,d t,u e,u t), max (d e,d t,u e,u t)]
              [d,u]^-1  =  [u^-1, d^-1]   if 0 notin [d,u]
                                            ie  0 in D  or  0 in U
                        =  [-oo, +oo]     if 0 in [d,u]

The formula for multiplication is complicated by the need to consider
all possible combinations of signs.

However, we have just said that supD and infU need not exist as real
numbers, so we have more work to do to define the arithmetic
operations for them.

This extension can be defined, using methods from continuous lattices,
so long as each operation * is rounded in the sense that

         [d,u] * [e,t] << [a,z]   =>   Some d' u' e' t'.
         [d,u]<<[d',u'] & [e,t]<<[e',t'] & [d',u']*[e',t']<<[a',z']

where [d,u] << [d',u'] means d'<d & u<u'. This is easy to prove for
addition, but rather messy for multiplication. It's neither difficult
nor deep, but the property is important, so is it stated anywhere?



COMPLETENESS OF INTERVAL COMPUTATION

Standard interval analysis evaluates a function with an interval as
its argument by replacing the usual arithmetic operations with Moore's
generalisation to intervals. This overestimates the range of a
function, often by a long way.

However, we may compute the set-theoretic image of an interval [d,u]
to within any  eps>0  by sub-dividing [d,u] into sufficiently but
finitely many parts, applying the function Moore-wise to each part,
and forming the union. Where is this theorem (first) proved in the
interval literature? This result is the basis of the construction of R
and the proof that [d,u] is compact in ASD.



BACK-TO-FRONT INTERVALS

Bizarrely, it is also possible to UNDERestimate the image by considering
back-to-front intervals. This was first done by E.W. Kaucher, but can
anyone give me his paper or tell me his first name? It is also used to
construct the existential quantifier in our paper.

It does not make sense to represent Kaucher intervals as closed
subspaces: we should use D and U instead, although they now overlap.



DEDEKIND COMPLETENESS AND THE ARCHIMEDEAN AXIOM

A total order X is Dedekind complete if every pair of subsets D, U of X
that satisfies the axioms for a cut is of the form
         D = {d | d < a}     and     U = {u | u > a}
for some unique a in X.

Dedekind cuts of the rationals form a Dedekind complete field, ie a
cut composed of real numbers defines another real number. In other
words, Dedekind's construction is idempotent.

Q and R are Archimedean:
         eps>0   =>   Some n:N.  (n-1) eps < x < (n+1) eps.

Classically, R is the only Dedekind complete ordered field, because
Dedekind completeness implies the Archimedean principle.

Proof: the sets
         D = {d | Some n:N. d < n}     and     U = {u | All n:N. u > n}
are rounded, disjoint and order-located. They are bounded (and so form
a cut) iff U is nonempty. By Dedekind completeness, the cut (D,U)
corresponds to an element  omega  of the field. This should be the only
element that lies between D and U, but  omega-1 does so too.
Hence U must be empty.

Assuming the Archimedean principle, the two definitions of locatedness
are equivalent. Who first proved these results?

John Conway's system of surreal numbers tries to extend the idea of
Dedekind completeness to infinities and infinitessimals. The whole
system is a proper class, as is U in this proof, and so (D,U) is not a
legitimate cut: Conway calls it a gap.

I conjecture (and John Conway considered this plausible when I put it
to him) that there is a version of his number system in which sets are
replaced by RE sets, and every RE Dedekind cut represents a number,
but there are also infinities and infinitessimals.

Andrej and I certainly don't construct such a thing in our
paper. However, we have isolated the use of the Archimedean principle,
in the hope that someone in future might eliminate it.



LOCATEDNESS OF THE ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS

The most difficult thing to prove is always locatedness.

In computational terms, when we are asked to compute the result of an
operation to a certain precision, we have to ask for its arguments to
the appropriate precision. For example, if we need x+y within eps,
it is enough to know x and y within eps/2.

However, for multiplication things are more complicated: we need to
know x to within  eps/|y|. This is also formulated and proved
constructively in our paper.

Finally, we also have a way of defining inverse functions
(reciprocals, roots, powers and logarithms) that the referee
considered "rather elegant".


Paul Taylor
pt08@PaulTaylor.EU